Developing low level - Android Software Development

Hello and happy new year,
i am thinking of buying the Nexus One. I am a programmer and i want to know if I can program at low level using the sdk. I mean interacting with the hardware etc...
Thank you

Related

developing a basic astrosoftaware.

hello developers!
I'm a graphic designer with absolutely no skills in programing, but I dream of a software so I wonder if someone here would bee crazy enough to develop it?? here is a pic explaining the concept.
basicly, it's a time line showing sun rise and set and moon rise set and phases.
thanks all!

[Q] Best Android phone for camera app development?

Hello Everyone,
I will be working on an Android application for a lab group I'm working with. The application requires the ability to "fine-tune" the camera on an Android phone. A little bit about the project:
1. Need to take about 50 pictures a minute for 3 minutes
2. Turn off Auto-focus
3. Turn off Auto-gain
4. Set exposure time
5. Images are preferred in gray scale
6. Control LEDs outside of phone hardware
I'm familiar with embedded Linux but very new to the Android platform. Looking at the API, it doesn't look like I'll be able do some of things easily. Might have to get into the camera driver?
I was wondering what would be the easiest phone to develop something like this? Could someone point me in the right direction?
Thanks in Advance!!
50 pictures a minute for 3 minutes is essentially video...? Or would you just throw these images away?
I'm really new to java and the Android platform and all that too. I don't think there is really an easy or easiest phone to develop on. But you should probably design for medium-density phones (such as, my HTC Hero, even though it's old). Medium density phones are the most common. Otherwise, just download eclipse and the Android SDK and get to it.
By the way, I don't think you have to get into the camera driver or anything. I think you just need to declare what resources you will be utilizing.
kszup said:
Hello Everyone,
Could someone point me in the right direction?
!!
Click to expand...
Click to collapse
I think you just dug yourself a pretty big hole there. It depends on the android device you already have, Keep in mind a few things:
1. Which android device is going to be your test device (can't use the emulator).
2. Which platform do you want to support (1.6, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 etc)
3. What flavor of ROMs will you support.
We use Nexus one and an array of phones for our application development. We've played with cameras (augmented reality apps). Cameras behave differently on different phones. Cameras' viewable screens are also different on 4:3 vs 16:9 screens. They are also different on Sense UI ROMs vs stock vanilla roms.
This is my advice: Pick a phone that you think it'll help you most. Having the latest test phone (ie Nexus S) helps. but keep in mind that not everyone is on Gingerbread soon and they will not be on GB soon. Some of the GB features do not work on Froyo etc.
Good luck with your project. Just pick a phone, and run with it (and cross your finger and hope they all behave the same). Google says all androids are created equal right? But I quote Orwell and say "All androids are created equal. Some are more equal than the others."
Thanks for the input. The application is far from being something for the general public. I just need to have it work for one phone as a proof of concept.
I'm looking at Nexus S, Samsung Galaxy S, and HTC Dream. Any +/- to programming for these?

Finally Android LAG explained by Google(Android)

Hi,
today I received this on my +Google....
I suggest any Andoid lover, worker, passionate, fun, user, read and make some comments...
https://plus.google.com/u/0/100838276097451809262/posts/VDkV9XaJRGS
Thanks
The fact that the Galaxy Nexus still suffers from these issues is a sign that this is something we'll be putting up with for a while. If it takes a complete overhaul to fix it, they should just get on and do it.
After all, what good is all this Hardware power we are paying for in new devices, when Android can't even deliver something as fundamental as smooth scrolling? Something that the iPhone has had for years, btw.
Sadly.. I agree. You can have the highest horsepower car in the world... but give it junk fuel to run it and you may as well be driving a pinto.
It needs to be fixed. Big time.
Sent from my Nexus One using XDA App
I'm curious how the Galaxy Nexus will perform & what problems will pop up over time, that Google/Samsung will ignore? Out of all the mobile OS's out there Android seems the least polished & has a work in progress feel to it.
I'm wondering, is it possible or would it have any benefit to dynamically change the thread priority when user input is detected? Not make it real-time like iOS but at least shift the balance toward the main thread, which does the rendering as I understand it?
phoneguy 4567 said:
I'm curious how the Galaxy Nexus will perform & what problems will pop up over time, that Google/Samsung will ignore? Out of all the mobile OS's out there Android seems the least polished & has a work in progress feel to it.
Click to expand...
Click to collapse
I've been keeping a close eye on the GN forums here, and there are already a lot of issues being mentioned. It's early days yet though so hopefully the bugs will be squashed in time.
The choppy/lag issue is unforgivable though. You can't use a Smartphone without scrolling and swiping, they're fundamental things. I don't really care about 'face unlocking' and other 'features'. Fix the basics.

[Angry] Multitasking on Android is totally rubbish!

This is just so annoying.
I was playing a game on FPSE during the lunch break. At 13:30, back to work, did not have the opportunity to save my game. Nevermind, I just put the telephone on screen saver / lock screen so that I can continue later, after the work.
...
...
...
Meanwhile I received a text. Fine, I can read it and possibly answer to it... Android is supposed to hadle multitask rather well after all.
...
...
...
Pwned.
After texting, back to FPSE, just to check and make sure that it's still on... Just to notice that the app has been killed by Android...
This is sooo annoying. It's supposed to be mobile phone specialized in gaming. You should be able to interrupt your game to answer a call or a message!!!
I previously owned a Nokia N8 Powered by Symbian^3. It was much much more efficient. Could lauch many apps without worrying of the multitaking. Apps where running in the background, not simply killed by the OS...
Any similar experience to share guys? (or solution, but I doubt there is any...)
What you are experiencing is the brilliant idea of putting a small amount of ram into a android gaming phone (well thought out, Sony). When the ram is low and another app needs to use that ram, Android will automatically kill another app to claim free ram. The problem Android has is it uses Java as the base programming language. The problem with Java is it is a resource hog and totally steals as much ram as possible...see the problem yet? Also, the problem Sony has is that they are stupid.
And now for the reasons. Google choose Java as the base because of its popularity and ease of use for noobs at programming, which is also why there are so many bad apps in the Google Market compared to the iphone. While this was a smart choice for Google at the time to help accelerate their market growth to help catch up with the ios market, it's now a problem they'll always have as a consequence to that choice. To counter this problem of having a horrible base program language android phones constantly needs to have ridiculous specs in order to have comparable performance to the iphone (quad core, gig of ram, phones anyone?).
So there you have it, the core and unavoidable problem with Android. An operating system so inefficient that it warrants quad cores with close to pc specs (That is amazingly bad). So bad that they must've been really high when the folks at Sony thought it was a good idea that a GAMING phone would only need a single core with crap ram. Well played.
So what you are saying is, the entire Android platform is garbage because you made that decision with a garbage phone? Try multitasking on the SG3, then come back. Or, go deal with the fake multitasking of iOS.
you can try supercharger, n use multitasking choice, that's the best multitasking option that i ever try, altough it will makes your free RAM under 70 MB, but multitasking is very great....
DubleJayJ said:
So what you are saying is, the entire Android platform is garbage because you made that decision with a garbage phone? Try multitasking on the SG3, then come back. Or, go deal with the fake multitasking of iOS.
Click to expand...
Click to collapse
All I'm saying is Android is inefficient. This is generally known and Google has been constantly criticized because of it. Going back to my point, this is why manufactures are pushing out quads on their phones.
@cityhunter62
@coreyon
So, why are you even here?
narflynn619 said:
@cityhunter62
@coreyon
So, why are you even here?
Click to expand...
Click to collapse
I provided information on the problem...? I think a better question would be why are YOU here? You didn't provide anything on this thread.
just wonder if V6 supercharger bulletproof app might help?
Tje great thing about android is that normally there is an app for whatevet you need or a flashable zip or a script ect so it just takes a quick search and abitta time and you could be tip top and there's allways the quick save feature in fpse
Sent from my R800i using xda app-developers app
narflynn619 said:
@cityhunter62
@coreyon
So, why are you even here?
Click to expand...
Click to collapse
Coreyon answered to my question and I thank him for that. Now I understand why multitasking does not work on Android, or at least on Android phones with few ram. Still, N8 had 256mb ram but handled multitasking perfectly.
Anyway, mathacer and foryou168 gave some advices that might be helpful. I had some answers, that was the point of this thread...
I'm sure I'm not the only one who experienced that kind of problem...
coreyon said:
All I'm saying is Android is inefficient. This is generally known and Google has been constantly criticized because of it. Going back to my point, this is why manufactures are pushing out quads on their phones.
Click to expand...
Click to collapse
Inefficient because it ran out of RAM? OEM's are pushing for quads because the software and Linux foundation is the most advanced out there. No other mobile is has such supreme multitasking and such a myriad of emulation apps.
Enable zRAM or use a swap partition if you expect this low-RAM device to keep a 32-bit-era console emulator in the background while doing phone functions.
Or get a tablet for gaming. Its still just a smartphone dude.
Or get an iPhone.
Or learn development and help the "horrible android" to be better.
Sent from Xperia Play (R800a) with Tapatalk
Just don't say that android is rubbish,.. it's awesome.. And it's open.. we can customize our phone to our need... that's make it different..
Sent from my GT-I9100 using xda premium
Android is insufficient, but on my Galaxy S3 samsungs multitasking is absolutely terrible for 1GB, but now once I flashed the Multitaskingfix I have to say its like multitasking on a 2GB android device, I love it! and in the latest leak (with Multi view, etc) XXELK4 4.1.2 the ram used is almost half of what is used on 4.1.1, Love you samsung! can't say that about Sony, but Xperia play will always be with me until I get use to Touch screen gaming.
For everyone that somehow got offended when I said Android is inefficient, please read on. Android IS inefficient, but that does not mean it's a bad operating system. I personally use it myself. It's certainly better than ios with Apples lockdown. The great positives of Android is that it uses the Linux kernel which is very advanced, and the entire operating system itself is very customizable (partly thanks to java it self).
Now with that said, like I've mentioned I don't know how many times now, it will always have a problem as apps and games become more and more advanced; there will always be the new apps that pushes the hardware to a new level and with the Android overhead will cause it to be slower than it could be. A good example of this is how Minecraft (with its amazingly bad graphics) on the PC needs Crysis-like specs to play with good fps on a PC. That's ridiculous, and it's because the game runs in Java. I know there is Minecraft for Android, but let's be honest it's a very very small map that barely has any of the pc gameplay, otherwise the phone would explode. However, just like Android, even with Minecraft's horrible lag issues it is still an awesome game, and is very easy to customize the game which is also very awesome. Does everyone understand my point now?
CosmicDan said:
Or learn development and help the "horrible android" to be better.
Click to expand...
Click to collapse
I AM a developer, and I have had the pleasure of struggling with Java's limitation on a multiple array of platforms. I do know what I'm talking about, it's a well known issue.
I'm personally suprised Java is still alive
Thought it would have died years ago because java programs would be slow as molasses/bog down any PC.
So I'm surprised it actually runs decently on phones... tho the phones are more powerful than PCs from a few years ago lol
And yeah, its' the same old cycle.
Software always gets bloated as hardware specs increase so it's tough to get ahead - kinda like how inflation negates pay raises
coreyon said:
I AM a developer, and I have had the pleasure of struggling with Java's limitation on a multiple array of platforms. I do know what I'm talking about, it's a well known issue.
Click to expand...
Click to collapse
I can agree from my experience with Java software, especially the security concerns. I heard a saying: hell is a world where Java is the only programming language. I'm more annoyed by Google trying to do things different and separating itself from Linux standard.
I have to say you are very lucky to present your thoughts here, if this was a Nexus forum all hell would break loose. The Nexus fanboys are relentless.
Sent from my Galaxy Nexus
eksasol said:
I can agree from my experience with Java software, especially the security concerns. I heard a saying: hell is a world where Java is the only programming language. I'm more annoyed by Google trying to do things different and separating itself from Linux standard.
I have to say you are very lucky to present your thoughts here, if this was a Nexus forum all hell would break loose. The Nexus fanboys are relentless.
Sent from my Galaxy Nexus
Click to expand...
Click to collapse
Aha, I should've made a thread for this. This went way off topic from the original purpose of the thread.
JAVA OS?
I thought IOS apps were Java also?
Either way, they have similar "multitasking", except that the programmer can control how an Android app "moves through the states" (ie. from pause when its in background to being killed) so if the FPSE programmers took advantage of the power of Android OS, they could have set the game to do a save as it was killed...
In fact, Android AUTOMATICALLY dumps some of the programs memory when killed involuntarily (the OS needs more RAM) so really, all the programmer needs to do is check to see if there is a bundle already there when the programs oncreate() is (re)called - if so, then resume!
developer[dot]android[dot]com/training/basics/activity-lifecycle/recreating.html
For the record I hate Java, and more so - ECLIPSE (Java IDE that was also itself made in Java) makes me want to shoot myself in the face whilst listening to Enya and letting spiders crawl on my testicles.
Hicsy said:
I thought IOS apps were Java also?
Either way, they have similar "multitasking", except that the programmer can control how an Android app "moves through the states" (ie. from pause when its in background to being killed) so if the FPSE programmers took advantage of the power of Android OS, they could have set the game to do a save as it was killed...
In fact, Android AUTOMATICALLY dumps some of the programs memory when killed involuntarily (the OS needs more RAM) so really, all the programmer needs to do is check to see if there is a bundle already there when the programs oncreate() is (re)called - if so, then resume!
developer[dot]android[dot]com/training/basics/activity-lifecycle/recreating.html
For the record I hate Java, and more so - ECLIPSE (Java IDE that was also itself made in Java) makes me want to shoot myself in the face whilst listening to Enya and letting spiders crawl on my testicles.
Click to expand...
Click to collapse
I don't touch ios even with a 50 foot pole, but I'm pretty sure ios apps don't use Java. Even if they did, the core operating system doesn't, and that's enough to make a huge impact difference in performance.
I heard about some developer porting Android to C+. By passing all those legal issues with Microsoft, if Android ran on C+ wouldn't it fix all the lag much like Project Butter has and evidently fixed the incredible RAM usage by the device?

ARA/Phonebloks doomed from the start?

I have been somewhat following the whole Phonebloks and ARA scene, participating in the Dscout missions, and generally have to say that there is a lot of buzz and hype with very little meat behind it. The general populace is thinking legos, colors, fancy shmancy materials, and other appearance related nonsense. There seems to be very little technical content, and the majority of the crowd seems to be lured by key words such as "eco", "reusable", "repairable", "customizable" and so on.
Certainly, in terms of driving sales, this is good attention, something Motorola needs.
The downside, however, seems to be that people do not understand how things work, have no patience for it, and want things to "just work."
I highly doubt that this will be something that is user friendly out of the box.
The biggest misconception seems to be that you will be able to build anything you want out of this. If this idea is not curbed, this project will fail. People will become disappointed. Already they seem to think that they can have an espresso maker and a telescope added to the thing.
On top of it all, Motorola has a track record of taking good ideas and executing them poorly. Think Atrix lapdock.
So what is the clear mission of this project?
Ease of repair? That can already be done using current production methods. Look at the iPhone vs Galaxy series in terms of screen replacement. Its night and day.
Reusing parts? What could you reuse from an iPhone 4 when building a 5s? The headphone jack? Batteries die, radios, memory, sensors, processors, become old news by the time they hit the assembly line, and screens evolve at a fast pace.
There is no mention of a core device with expansion bays, the project seems to suggest you could swap all basic components on the fly. This is nonsense. Is it really worth taking steps back to make separate little bricks for Bluetooth, Wifi, NFC, GSM radio, etc., when current production methods can squeeze these into a single system-on-chip design at a fraction of the cost?
Imagine for a minute if Googorola took the Moto X approach to hardware: You log into your Motomaker account, and at checkout you pick your options. 3 choices of screen size, 3 choices of processors, 3 choices of storage capacity, an 8, 13, or 16 Mpix camera, 3 different battery capacities, cdma, gsm, or global radio, etc., then once you select your hardware, you customize the case colors, and you're done.
I know this rant is way into the TL;DR territory, but there are other factors to consider, perhaps profitability being paramount. Open source phone, with open source modules, etc. How will Motorola make $ on this? How long till knock off modules hit the market? What is the pricing scheme, etc.
I would love to get a serious discussion going, touching on some of the things I brought up.
Sent from my Nexus 5 using xda app-developers app
I wouldn't say they're doomed from the start but their social network app and stuff seems pretty gimmicky to me. I definitely think that modular phones are in the future but they need to spend more time talking about the actual hardware and open sourcing drivers and stuff instead of their weird Instagram clone in my opinion. I'm still staying optimistic if they don't do it someone else will.
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Nice idea, but people here at xda would have a nightmare with such a thing, meaning rom development for every and each component combination.......
Lets ask ourselves, when would it be appropriate or papamount to upgrade a hardware component of any of our phones now? The reasoning now is more like, 'it would be cool if we could'. I cant think of any necessary reason now for needing to change harware unless it needs repair. I believe necessity should be a starting point for this whole concept. Necessity often drives truly good design.
I personally think that this would be good because of the fact that technology advances at such a rapid pace that being able to upgrade your components when a better version comes out would be good. Obviously there would be some compatibility issues between some parts that would be unavoidable. It would be more for the person who wants the high end device. Take me for example, I have the S4 and I love it but next year when the S5 comes out it wouldn't be the latest and greatest and I can't upgrade for two years. I could love a Moto X but I don't wanna pay the off contract price for it. So I think this is the only time it would be good and efficient, not a huge game changer but a slight game changer.
Also about the knock off or cheap parts, if they have the drivers and protocols open source than it shouldn't be to big of an issue, not anymore than buying a knock off replacement screen. Still something to look out for when buying modules.
I think that the idea from Phoneblocks or Ara are really good but I think that the project will prospere
Project Ara.
Being a modular design, brings complications, but with those complications comes new opportunities in the hardware section as well as the software side of the development.
The metric is quite valid and tangible, even more so today, wth the manufacturing techniques available, this idea actually makes far more sense than feeding the giant a steady diet of the same old thing.
You save money if all you require is a modified version of the RF section, you install that block.
The same goes for the remainder of the phone, easy upgrading, no downtime, and lower overall cost for the entire market, not to mention the lowering of landfill garbage from dumped devices that could not be upgraded.
The engineering end of this is wonderful, I wish it arrived years ago. A 'Lego-Phone' you build and upgrade as you need to, no more buying an aircraft carrier, when all you require is a shuttle.
We can finally drive the market, provide for ourselves, push manufacturers in the direction we need them to head, instead of driving us with their own thoughts on what is necessary.
I don't use much in the way of media, so anything more than 720P is of little use, but I do appreciate an HDMI-type format screen.
The RF section is far more important to my needs, and of course, a micro-SD card slot.
I prefer a sensitive front end, high dynamic range, and a superbly augmented IP3(third intercept point) as a basis for my receiver design.
I have grown tired of matchbox quality RF systems, and when in poor signal areas, or in a heavily wooded area with sparse cell tower penetration, i prefer my phone have the ability to connect with a site even if the RSSI indicates no signal, at least a data channel should be able to 'hear' a short text message for help if sent.
If the phone can't hear well, it can't talk well, either.
Most subscribers assume that cell signals are routed through the power lines*!*
I have had customers that actually said this...But this is the basis of my most desired and important 'want', a solid RF system, receiver and transmitter section that works!
High density areas have few problems with dropped calls, if the site loading is low, but in rural areas, loading is not an issue, it's accessibility, and sites spaced 10 miles apart, can actually have users drop calls even near by, due to dense foliage or hilly/mountainous terrain, even though the tower is within eyesight, you still drop a call. This is where fresnel zones come into play, and where a good RF section makes the difference.
If you think rain kills RF signals, see my pic I just snapped from my door, of the trees filled with heavy snow!
Poorly designed RF systems can't decode signals properly, the B.E.R suffers, causing message failures, call time-outs as well as just lousy QOS due to noise, echoing, raspy speech processing and a host of other problems.
The memory subsystems are important, as well as the GPU and video systems, but you can still make a call if the video drops, not so much if the RF section dies.
We all have our own desires, as well as what is most important to our needs, but overall, i do believe that project Ara is a great step in the right direction for a change....Where the customer drive the market, not the manufacturers!
Now I don't know if you were aware, but Google only owns Motorola's Research Lab. The actual company was purchased by Lenovo a few weeks ago.
Besides, I sort feel the same way, because, besides the hubbub, it doesn't seem like a very user friendly process in my mind. That's why I think it feels like nothing more than a research project with a couple of news reporters locked inside their facilities.
Sent from my ST21i using XDA app-developers app.
Don't forget to hit thanks if I helped!
In the beginning, they will have to offer options in a controlled environment like one poster abive said. It will be similar to
1. CHOOSE YOUR PROCESSOR:
a. Good
b. Better
c. Best
Etc etc....
The first question probably will be "Choose Your Carrier". Then all of the module choices will be pre-screened to function together on that network.
Samsung Galaxy S4 "Fort Knox Edition"
Guys, believe in Google. They made a search engine wich is now the most used engine. They also made a very good browser, an operating system for mobiles, an online map wich has street view and many other good things. Why they couldn't make project ara?
Sent from my LG-P880 using xda app-developers app
PenguinStyle said:
Guys, believe in Google. They made a search engine wich is now the most used engine. They also made a very good browser, an operating system for mobiles, an online map wich has street view and many other good things. Why they couldn't make project ara?
Sent from my LG-P880 using xda app-developers app
Click to expand...
Click to collapse
Just making sure it wasnt a misinterpretation but google did not create android, Android Inc founded by andy rubin(correct me if im wrong) http://www.techradar.com/news/phone...e-phones/a-complete-history-of-android-470327
PenguinStyle said:
Guys, believe in Google. They made a search engine wich is now the most used engine. They also made a very good browser, an operating system for mobiles, an online map wich has street view and many other good things. Why they couldn't make project ara?
Sent from my LG-P880 using xda app-developers app
Click to expand...
Click to collapse
All those things you mention are software, that runs on high performance computers. What ARA requires is a total rethinking of the hardware and engineering of today's mobile phones.
Can any module be swapped for some other type of module? How do they interface? What bandwidth limitations do these interfaces introduce?
Sent from my GT-I9505 using Tapatalk
SynGates said:
All those things you mention are software, that runs on high performance computers. What ARA requires is a total rethinking of the hardware and engineering of today's mobile phones.
Can any module be swapped for some other type of module? How do they interface? What bandwidth limitations do these interfaces introduce?
Sent from my GT-I9505 using Tapatalk
Click to expand...
Click to collapse
The ARA developers conference already answered most of this, so its possibility is not the question. Its availability and adaptability is the question. Will people flock to it or despise it?? Will it make people feel more in control?
If google can advertise this thing as something that gives people more power it will definitely catch on. Plus if Google is truly looking to start their own mobile network as rumoured, then they could start in that manner and make others envious to catch on.
Sent from my SM-G900T using Tapatalk
It's going to be a wait and see what happens on release thing I think. I don't personally don't think it's going to explode instantly onto the mobile scene but give it a year or two and hopefully it will start changing the game. With everything being open source it might pave the way for smaller companies to get into the handheld scene where they don't have the money or resources to develop full devices but can focus on just a single module. Much like the way of the custom pc market.
replicamask said:
It's going to be a wait and see what happens on release thing I think. I don't personally don't think it's going to explode instantly onto the mobile scene but give it a year or two and hopefully it will start changing the game. With everything being open source it might pave the way for smaller companies to get into the handheld scene where they don't have the money or resources to develop full devices but can focus on just a single module. Much like the way of the custom pc market.
Click to expand...
Click to collapse
My sentiments exactly.
Koreans will really fight against this project. They won't be willing to loose the cellular market to Google. ARA has a lot of potential in developing countries, provided the prices for modules will be adequate. But yes, even with adequate pricetag such innovation will require a drastic change in marketing-infected minds of people.
Sent from my SM-N900W8 using Tapatalk 4
I hope it could work really well. I'd like to see the ability to transfer all the core modules from one endo 'frame' to another - SIM, WiFi, ROM, storage plus camera and perhaps CPU/RAM from a larger 'everyday' frame to a smaller 'night out' frame. I'd like an 'everyday' camera and a 'holiday' camera. I might carry a speaker module, but would swap it in against a torch module only for those occasions I'd need it. I'd carry spare battery modules and expect to see external chargers for them.
Didn't read the whole thread, but I'd say the whole "eco friendly" concept is BS from the beginning. People will start buying new components everytime they are out, thus generating MORE electric waste.
till22 said:
Didn't read the whole thread, but I'd say the whole "eco friendly" concept is BS from the beginning. People will start buying new components everytime they are out, thus generating MORE electric waste.
Click to expand...
Click to collapse
This is possible and a good point. I think they could counter this by placing some inherent value on modules so you could trade them in for cash or credit towards other modules.
I think this will work much better than trading in phones since all modules should work for all ara phones.
What you all need to remember is that the microcomputer revolution didn't really become a mass market phenomenon until the IBM PC arrived with its open "Industry Standard Architecture". This allowed the rapid emergence of third party expansion cards and other "PC compatible" hardware, and "PC clones". Not only did this accelerate the pace of technology development it also pushed prices down significantly. If IBM had not made the PC architecture both expandable and open, general purpose computing would have remained an expensive and specialised tool available only to business and the very rich. Imagine the effect that wouls have had on the development of the worldwide web a decade later.
If you are of the generation who grew up uaing laptops you may not have realised that modular technology is cheaper and more flexible, and it means longer hardware lifecycles.

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